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How To Register Eith Thr Stste Of Haesii To Buy Meficsl Cannabis

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Genus of flowering plants

Cannabis

Temporal range: Early Miocene - Present 19.half dozen–0 Ma

PreꞒ

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O

S

D

C

P

T

J

M

Pg

North
Cannabis sativa Koehler drawing.jpg
Common hemp
Scientific nomenclature e
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Guild: Rosales
Family unit: Cannabaceae
Genus: Cannabis
L.
Species[1]
  • Cannabis sativa L.
  • Cannabis indica Lam.
  • Cannabis ruderalis Janisch

Cannabis ()[ii] is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may exist recognized: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis; C. ruderalis may be included within C. sativa; all three may exist treated as subspecies of a single species, C. sativa;[1] [iii] [4] [five] or C. sativa may exist accepted as a single undivided species.[six] The genus is widely accustomed every bit beingness ethnic to and originating from Asia.[7] [8] [9]

The plant is also known as hemp, although this term is often used to refer but to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug utilize. Cannabis has long been used for hemp fibre, hemp seeds and their oils, hemp leaves for use as vegetables and as juice, medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are fabricated from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber. To satisfy the United nations Narcotics Convention, some cannabis strains have been bred to produce minimal levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the chief psychoactive constituent. Some strains accept been selectively bred to produce a maximum of THC (a cannabinoid), the strength of which is enhanced by curing the fruits. Various compounds, including hashish and hash oil, are extracted from the plant.[10]

In the U.s., "industrial hemp" is classified by the federal regime as cannabis containing no more than 0.3% THC by dry weight. This classification was established in the 2018 Farm Bill and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp.[11]

Globally, in 2013, 60,400 kilograms of cannabis were produced legally.[12] In 2014 at that place were an estimated 182.v million cannabis users (three.8% of the population anile fifteen–64).[13] This percentage did not change significantly between 1998 and 2014.[13]

Clarification

Cannabis is an almanac, dioecious, flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or digitate, with serrate leaflets.[14] The beginning pair of leaves usually accept a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leafage (usually seven or ix), depending on multifariousness and growing atmospheric condition. At the top of a flowering plant, this number once more diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leafage pairs usually occur in an contrary leaf organization and the upper foliage pairs in an alternating arrangement on the main stem of a mature found.

The leaves accept a peculiar and diagnostic venation design that enables persons poorly familiar with the institute to distinguish a cannabis foliage from unrelated species that accept confusingly similar leaves (see illustration). As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a cardinal vein extending to its tip. However, the serration vein originates from lower down the primal vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the outset notch down, merely the next notch. This means that on its style from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein volition really laissez passer tangent to the notch, but oftentimes information technology volition pass by at a small distance, and when that happens a spur vein (occasionally a pair of such spur veins) branches off and joins the leafage margin at the deepest betoken of the notch. This venation design varies slightly amongst varieties, just in general information technology enables one to tell Cannabis leaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants besides can be identified with precision by microscopic exam of foliage cells and similar features, merely that requires special expertise and equipment.[15]

Reproduction

All known strains of Cannabis are air current-pollinated[16] and the fruit is an achene.[17] Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants,[16] with the possible exception of C. sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which is commonly described equally "machine-flowering" and may be solar day-neutral.

Cannabis is predominantly dioecious,[16] [18] having imperfect flowers, with staminate "male" and pistillate "female person" flowers occurring on dissever plants.[xix] "At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious",[20] and the (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined eleven 枲 "male Cannabis" and fu 莩 (or ju 苴) "female person Cannabis".[21] Male flowers are commonly borne on loose panicles, and female person flowers are borne on racemes.[22]

Many monoecious varieties have too been described,[23] in which individual plants bear both male and female flowers.[24] (Although monoecious plants are oftentimes referred to every bit "hermaphrodites", truthful hermaphrodites – which are less common in Cannabis – acquit staminate and pistillate structures together on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at unlike locations on the aforementioned plant.) Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.[25] [26] [27] Many populations have been described as sexually labile.[28] [29] [30]

Equally a result of intensive selection in tillage, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that tin can exist described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.[31] Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the fruits (produced by female flowers) are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile cobweb product, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy tin can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops,[25] but sativa strains ofttimes produce monoecious individuals, which is possibly as a result of inbreeding.

Cannabis female flower with visible trichomes

Male Cannabis flower buds

Sex activity decision

Cannabis has been described every bit having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex activity determination among the dioecious plants.[31] Many models have been proposed to explicate sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by G. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex activity-determination organization is nowadays.[29] At the time, the XY system was the simply known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.[32] Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's estimation,[33] and published results from his own studies of sexual practice reversal in hemp, final that an X:A system was in apply and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.[30]

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, peculiarly in plants.[18] Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the found kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious found species have been adamant to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.[34]

Since the 1920s, a number of sexual practice determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".[eighteen]

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the start plant species to be karyotyped; all the same, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, simply were non found in pistillate individuals of the aforementioned variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was causeless to utilize an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German language cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sexual activity chromosome limerick 20.[35] Co-ordinate to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996.[36] Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but hard to differentiate cytologically.[37]

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors[38] [39] take used RAPD to isolate several genetic marking sequences that they proper name Male person-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other enquiry groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP.[40] [28] [41] Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,

Information technology is not surprising that male person-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex activity chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness point either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a factor involved in sex determination.[18]

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a diversity of species.[42] Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by ecology factors.[thirty] Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and Ethylene as a plant hormone#ethylene have feminizing effects, and that handling with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing furnishings.[18] Information technology has been reported that sexual activity can exist reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.[43] A PCR-based method for the detection of female-associated Dna polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.[44]

  • A male person hemp plant

  • Dense raceme of female flowers typical of drug-type varieties of Cannabis

Biochemistry and drugs

Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which induce mental and physical effects when consumed.

Cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted past glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.[45] As a drug it unremarkably comes in the grade of dried infructescences ("buds" or "marijuana"), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known every bit hashish oil.[x] During the 20th century, it became illegal in about of the earth to cultivate or possess Cannabis for sale, and even sometimes for personal use.

  • Root organization side view

  • Root system top view

  • Micrograph C. sativa (left), C. indica (right)

Chromosomes and genome

Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid, having a chromosome complement of 2n=twenty, although polyploid individuals take been artificially produced.[46] The first genome sequence of Cannabis, which is estimated to exist 820 Mb in size, was published in 2011 by a squad of Canadian scientists.[47]

Taxonomy

The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the nettle family (Urticaceae) or mulberry family (Moraceae), and later, along with the genus Humulus (hops), in a separate family unit, the hemp family unit (Cannabaceae sensu stricto).[48] Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly advise that the Cannabaceae sensu stricto arose from within the one-time family Celtidaceae, and that the two families should be merged to grade a single monophyletic family, the Cannabaceae sensu lato.[49] [50]

Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:[51]

  • plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
  • plants cultivated for drug product, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
  • escaped, hybridised, or wild forms of either of the above types.

Cannabis plants produce a unique family unit of terpeno-phenolic compounds chosen cannabinoids, some of which produce the "high" which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are 483 identifiable chemic constituents known to exist in the cannabis institute,[52] and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the constitute.[53] The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive.[54] Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants take been categorized by their chemic phenotype or "chemotype", based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.[55] Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by ecology factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.[40] Not-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and depression levels of CBD. When plants of these 2 chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the offset filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermediate amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.[55] [56]

Top of Cannabis plant in vegetative growth stage

Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis found a unmarried, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because at that place is no universally accepted definition of a species.[57] Ane widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."[58] Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, merely morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.[58] Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.[46] However, concrete barriers to factor exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might accept enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.[59] Information technology remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic departure occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.[threescore] [61] [62]

Early classifications

Relative size of varieties of Cannabis

The genus Cannabis was start classified using the "mod" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the organization still in use for the naming of species.[63] He considered the genus to be monotypic, having merely a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the dominance who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam.[64] Lamarck based his clarification of the newly named species on plant specimens nerveless in Bharat. He described C. indica equally having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from People's republic of china and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin.[65] However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accustomed, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to exist the discipline of active taxonomic study. The proper noun Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the industry of medicinal preparations.[66]

20th century

In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in key Russia is either a diverseness of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch, and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch, every bit culling names.[51] In 1929, renowned constitute explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav.[56] [65] In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa 50. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa Fifty. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did non split up C. indica into subspecies or varieties.[51] [67]

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa equally prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defence force in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited past police. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide adept testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defence. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.[lx] [61] The defence attorneys were not often successful in winning their example, because the intent of the police was articulate.[68]

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small-scale[69] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with 2 subspecies: C. sativa 50. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq.[65] The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a effect of homo selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumably selected for traits that heighten fiber or seed product, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these ii subspecies, Small-scale and Cronquist described C. sativa Fifty. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Minor & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the loftier-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.[55] [65] [70]

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least iii species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. [71] [72] [73] [74] For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a unmarried species.[75] According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is alpine and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in Central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" strains from broad-leafed "indica" strains.[76]

Continuing research

Molecular belittling techniques developed in the late 20th century are beingness applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers accept been conducted on drug and cobweb strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant convenance and forensic purposes.[77] [78] [28] [79] [eighty] Dutch Cannabis researcher East.P.K. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies equally showing an "extremely high" caste of genetic polymorphism between and inside populations, suggesting a loftier degree of potential variation for pick, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars.[twoscore] They as well commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis genetic pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide farther confirmation that the genus consists of a unmarried species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.

An investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations showed cannabinoid variation in Cannabis germplasm. The patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis. [56] C. sativa cobweb and seed landraces, and feral populations, derived from Europe, Cardinal Asia, and Turkey. Narrow-leaflet and broad-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, a genetic analysis of the same prepare of accessions led to a three-species nomenclature, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis.[59] Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of sure sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that fix them apart from the other putative taxa.[81]

Despite advanced analytical techniques, much of the cannabis used recreationally is inaccurately classified. One laboratory at the University of British Columbia found that Jamaican Lamb's Bread, claimed to be 100% sativa, was in fact almost 100% indica (the reverse strain).[82] Legalization of cannabis in Canada (as of 17 October 2018[update]) may help spur private-sector research, specially in terms of diversification of strains. Information technology should likewise better classification accuracy for cannabis used recreationally. Legalization coupled with Canadian regime (Health Canada) oversight of production and labelling volition probable upshot in more—and more than accurate—testing to determine exact strains and content. Furthermore, the rising of craft cannabis growers in Canada should ensure quality, experimentation/research, and diversification of strains amid private-sector producers.[83]

Popular usage

The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had niggling effect on the terminology in widespread employ among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. Sativa is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. Indica designates shorter, bushier plants adjusted to libation climates and highland environments. Ruderalis is the informal proper name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and Fundamental Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis oft depict the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars past categorizing them as "pure indica", "mostly indica", "indica/sativa", "by and large sativa", or "pure sativa".

Evolutionary history

Cannabis likely split from its closest relative, Humulus (hops), during the mid Oligocene, around 27.8 million years ago co-ordinate to molecular clock estimates. The centre of origin of Cannabis is probable in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. The pollen of Humulus and Cannabis are very like and difficult to distinguish. The oldest pollen idea to be from Cannabis is from Ningxia, Red china, on the purlieus between the Tibetan Plateau and the Loess Plateau, dating to the early Miocene, around xix.6 one thousand thousand years agone. Cannabis was widely distributed over Asia by the Tardily Pleistocene. The oldest known Cannabis in South Asia dates to around 32,000 years agone.[84]

Uses

Cannabis is used for a wide diversity of purposes.

History

Co-ordinate to genetic and archaeological testify, cannabis was first domesticated nearly 12,000 years ago in E Asia during the early Neolithic period.[9] The use of cannabis as a mind-altering drug has been documented past archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Eurasia and Africa.[85] The oldest written record of cannabis usage is the Greek historian Herodotus'south reference to the central Eurasian Scythians taking cannabis steam baths.[86] His (c. 440 BCE) Histories records, "The Scythians, every bit I said, take some of this hemp-seed [presumably, flowers], and, creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour equally no Greek vapour-bath tin exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy."[87] Classical Greeks and Romans also used cannabis.

In Red china, the psychoactive properties of cannabis are described in the Shennong Bencaojing (3rd century AD).[88] Cannabis smoke was inhaled by Daoists, who burned it in incense burners.[88]

In the Eye E, use spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In 1545, cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its utilise as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, cloth and paper.[89] [xc] [91] [92]

Recreational use

Comparing of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs[93]

A dried bud, typical of what is sold for recreational use

Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, but behind alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco. In the The states alone, information technology is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried cannabis, with 25 meg Americans having used it within the past year.[ when? ] [94]

The psychoactive effects of cannabis are known to have a triphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a bottom caste, euphoria from its principal psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive furnishings, such as a facility for philosophical thinking, introspection and metacognition have been reported among cases of anxiety and paranoia.[95] Finally, the 3rd psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increment in middle rate and hunger, believed to exist caused by 11-OH-THC, a psychoactive metabolite of THC produced in the liver.

Normal noesis is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipage, bong or vaporizer.[95] However, if a big amount is taken orally the effects may terminal much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may exist felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.

Commercial cannabis extract

Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil[10] which, because of appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated.

Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic furnishings by itself[54] (although sometimes showing a minor stimulant issue, similar to caffeine),[96] attenuates, or reduces[97] the college feet levels caused by THC alone.[98]

Co-ordinate to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower adventure factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and booze.[99] However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such equally irritability or insomnia,[95] and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase every bit levels of THC metabolites rise.[100] [101] Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are non life-threatening.[102] Risk of adverse outcomes from cannabis apply may be reduced by implementation of evidence-based pedagogy and intervention tools communicated to the public with practical regulation measures.[103]

Medical use

Medical cannabis (or medical marijuana) refers to the utilize of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids, in an effort to treat disease or improve symptoms. Cannabis is used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve ambition in people with HIV/AIDS, and to treat chronic pain and musculus spasms.[104] [105] Cannabinoids are under preliminary research for their potential to affect stroke.[106] Evidence is defective for low, anxiety, attending arrears hyperactivity disorder, Tourette syndrome, mail-traumatic stress disorder, and psychosis.[107] Ii extracts of cannabis – dronabinol and nabilone – are approved by the FDA as medications in pill course for treating the side effects of chemotherapy and AIDS.[108]

Short-term apply increases both minor and major adverse effects.[105] Mutual side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations.[105] Long-term effects of cannabis are non clear.[109] Concerns including memory and noesis problems, risk of habit, schizophrenia in immature people, and the risk of children taking information technology by accident.[104]

Industrial use (hemp)

Cannabis sativa stem longitudinal department

The term hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber from the Cannabis constitute stem (stem). Cannabis sativa cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa varieties may abound more than six metres alpine. All the same, hemp can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that is non intended for employ as a drug. Many countries regulate limits for psychoactive compound (THC) concentrations in products labeled as hemp.

Cannabis for industrial uses is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially equally fibre[110] ranging from paper, cordage, construction fabric and textiles in general, to clothing. Hemp is stronger and longer-lasting than cotton. It likewise is a useful source of foodstuffs (hemp milk, hemp seed, hemp oil) and biofuels. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from Prc to Europe (and later Due north America) during the last 12,000 years.[110] [111] In modern times novel applications and improvements have been explored with modest commercial success.[112] [113]

Aboriginal and religious uses

The Cannabis found has a history of medicinal use dating dorsum thousands of years beyond many cultures.[114] The Yanghai Tombs, a vast aboriginal cemetery (54 000 m2) situated in the Turfan commune of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwest China, take revealed the 2700-twelvemonth-old grave of a shaman. He is thought to have belonged to the Jushi civilization recorded in the area centuries later on in the Hanshu, Chap 96B.[115] Near the head and pes of the shaman was a large leather basket and wooden bowl filled with 789g of cannabis, superbly preserved past climatic and burial conditions. An international squad demonstrated that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive component of cannabis. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture every bit a medicinal or psychoactive amanuensis, or an aid to divination. This is the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent.[116] The earliest bear witness of cannabis smoking has been plant in the 2,500-year-old tombs of Jirzankal Cemetery in the Pamir Mountains in Western Red china, where cannabis residue were constitute in burners with charred pebbles possibly used during funeral rituals.[117] [118]

Settlements which engagement from c. 2200–1700 BCE in the Bactria and Margiana contained elaborate ritual structures with rooms containing everything needed for making drinks containing extracts from poppy (opium), hemp (cannabis), and ephedra (which contains ephedrine).[119] Although there is no evidence of ephedra being used by steppe tribes, they engaged in cultic apply of hemp. Cultic apply ranged from Romania to the Yenisei River and had begun by 3rd millennium BC Smoking hemp has been establish at Pazyryk.[120]

Cannabis is start referred to in Hindu Vedas betwixt 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the tenth century CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in India as "nutrient of the gods".[121] Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi. One of the earliest to use this found in medical purposes was Korakkar, i of the 18 Siddhas.[122] [123] [ self-published source? ] The plant is called Korakkar Mooli in the Tamil language, meaning Korakkar'due south herb.[124] [125]

In Buddhism, cannabis is generally regarded as an intoxicant and may be a hindrance to evolution of meditation and clear awareness. In ancient Germanic culture, Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya.[126] [127] An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to incorporate Cannabis.[128] Sufis accept used Cannabis in a spiritual context since the 13th century CE.[129]

In modern times, the Rastafari move has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament.[130] Elders of the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church, a religious movement founded in the United States in 1975 with no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church, consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ.[131] Similar the Rastafari, some modernistic Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life.[132] [133] Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,[134] Cantheism,[135] the Cannabis Assembly[136] and the Church building of Cognizance. Rastafarians tend to be amongst the biggest consumers of modernistic Cannabis employ.[ commendation needed ]

Cannabis is frequently used among Sufis[137] – the mystical interpretation of Islam that exerts stiff influence over local Muslim practices in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Turkey, and Pakistan. Cannabis preparations are oftentimes used at Sufi festivals in those countries.[137] Islamic republic of pakistan'due south Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sindh province is particularly renowned for the widespread use of cannabis at the shrine's celebrations, especially its almanac Urs festival and Thursday evening dhamaal sessions - or meditative dancing sessions.[138] [139]

Us Regulation and Prohibition of Cannabis

The Marihuana Tax Human action of 1937 was one of the beginning measures to cannabis nationwide.[140] This deed was overturned in 1969 in Leary v. United States, and was repealed and replaced with the Controlled Substances Act past Congress the side by side year.[141] Under the CSA cannabis was assigned a Schedule I nomenclature, deemed to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use – thereby prohibiting even medical use of the drug. The classification has remained since the CSA was first signed into law, despite multiple efforts to reschedule.[142] [143] In direct response, the Libertarian Party (U.s.) was i of the first major parties to endorse cannabis legalization in their kickoff platform in 1972 which stated, "We favor the repeal of all laws creating "crimes without victims" now incorporated in Federal, country and local laws—such as laws on voluntary sexual relations, drug apply, gambling, and attempted suicide."[144] Every bit cannabis prohibition continued into the 21st Century, the U.S. Marijuana Party was formed in 2002 equally a unmarried-consequence political party to end the war on drugs and to legalize cannabis.[145] States have also begun to appoint in the process of Nullification (U.S. Constitution) to override federal laws pertaining to cannabis. California started the trend by legalizing medicinal cannabis in 1996.[146] Now, cannabis has been fully legalized for recreational use in xviii states with most states having some sort of land nullification of federal cannabis laws.[147]

Etymology

The word cannabis is from Greek κάνναβις ( kánnabis ) (encounter Latin cannabis ),[148] which was originally Scythian or Thracian.[149] It is related to the Farsi kanab, the English sheet and perchance the English language hemp (Onetime English hænep ).[149]

See as well

  • All pages with titles beginning with Cannabis
  • All pages with titles containing Cannabis
  • Cannabis consumption
  • Cannabis cultivation
  • Cannabis drug testing
  • Cannabis edible
  • Cannabis flower essential oil
  • Cannabis strain
  • Furnishings of cannabis
  • Hash, Marihuana & Hemp Museum
  • Indian Hemp Drugs Commission
  • Legal history of cannabis in the Usa
  • Occupational health concerns of cannabis use

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Further reading

  • Deitch, Robert (2003). Hemp: American History Revisited: The Plant with a Divided History . Algora Pub. ISBN978-0-87586-206-4.
  • Earleywine, Mitchell (2005). Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-513893-1. Archived from the original on xi March 2022. Retrieved vi Oct 2020.
  • Emmett, David; Graeme Dainty (2009). What you need to know about cannabis: agreement the facts. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN978-i-84310-697-v. Archived from the original on xvi August 2021. Retrieved vi Oct 2020.
  • Hulsewé, A. F. P. (1979). Communist china in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Sometime Han Dynasty. E. J. Brill, Leiden. ISBN 90-04-05884-2.
  • Geoffrey William, Guy; Brian Anthony Whittle; Philip Robson (2004). The medicinal uses of cannabis and cannabinoids. Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN978-0-85369-517-ii. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved half-dozen October 2020.
  • The netherlands, Julie M.D. (2010). The Pot Book: A Consummate Guide to Cannabis: Its Role in Medicine, Politics, scientific discipline, and culture. Park Street Press. ISBN978-1-59477-368-6. Archived from the original on eighteen August 2021. Retrieved six October 2020.
  • Iversen, Leslie L (2008). The science of marijuana (second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-xix-532824-0.
  • Jenkins, Richard (2006). Cannabis and Young People: Reviewing the Testify . Jessica Kingsley. ISBN978-i-84310-398-i.
  • Lambert, Didier Thousand (2008). Cannabinoids in Nature and Medicine. Wiley-VCH. ISBN978-three-906390-56-7. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved vi October 2020.
  • Mallory, J. P. and Victor H. Mair (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the W. Thames & Hudson, London. ISBN 0-500-05101-i.
  • Roffman, Roger A; Robert S. Stephens (2006). Cannabis Dependence: Its Nature, Consequences, and Treatment. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81447-8. Archived from the original on fifteen August 2021. Retrieved half dozen October 2020.
  • Russo, Ethan; Melanie Creagan Dreher; Mary Lynn Mathre (2004). Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Folklore. Haworth Press. ISBN978-0-7890-2101-four. Archived from the original on ane January 2021. Retrieved six Oct 2020.
  • Solowij, Nadia (1998). Cannabis and Cognitive Performance. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-59114-0. Archived from the original on 8 December 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2016.

External links

  • International Plant Names Index (IPNI)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis

Posted by: morenowenty1959.blogspot.com

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